Full Comprehensive ICT Study Guide

The fundamental concepts of Information and Communication Technology (ICT) form the cornerstone upon which all modern applications and systems are built. Understanding hardware and software components, the history of computer evolution, and the information processing cycle is the first and essential step for any specialist in this field, as this knowledge enables the ability to comprehend more complex systems and analyze them effectively.

1.1. Definition & Components of ICT تعريف ومكونات

The Five Main Components of an ICT System:

• Hardware الأجهزة: Tangible physical components such as computers, servers, and phones.
• Software البرمجيات: The set of instructions that directs hardware to perform specific tasks, such as operating systems and applications.
• Networks الشبكات: Systems that connect devices to each other to exchange data, such as the Internet and Local Area Networks (LANs).
• Data البيانات: Raw facts that are stored and processed, such as text, numbers, and images.
• People & Processes الأفراد والعمليات: Users, experts, and policies that govern the use of technology.

1.2. History of Computer Generations تاريخ أجيال الحاسوب

The following table summarizes the evolution of the five computer generations over time.

Generation & Time Period	Core Technology	Examples
1st Gen (1940-1950)	Vacuum Tubes الأنابيب المفرغة	ENIAC, UNIVAC
2nd Gen (1950-1960)	Transistors الترانزستور	IBM 1401
3rd Gen (1960-1970)	Integrated Circuits (ICs) الدوائر المتكاملة	IBM 360 series
4th Gen (1970-1990)	Microprocessors المعالجات الدقيقة	Apple II, IBM PC
5th Gen (1990-Today)	Artificial Intelligence الذكاء الاصطناعي	Smartphones, Cloud Computing, IoT

1.3. Types of Computers أنواع أجهزة الحاسوب

Computers are classified based on their size, power, and processing capability.

• Supercomputers الحواسيب الفائقة: These are the most powerful and fastest types of computers, used for complex scientific tasks such as weather forecasting and nuclear research.
• Mainframes الحواسيب المركزية: Large and powerful computers that support thousands of users simultaneously, used in large organizations like banks and airlines to manage massive transactions.
• Minicomputers الحواسيب الصغيرة: Medium-sized computers that appeared in the 3rd generation; they are smaller than mainframes but still support multiple users.
• Servers الخوادم: Powerful computers designed to manage network resources and provide services to other devices (clients), such as hosting websites or managing databases.
• Workstations محطات العمل: An advanced type of desktop computer featuring high performance in graphics and processing, used in engineering and graphic design fields.
• Microcomputers الحواسيب الدقيقة: Also known as Personal Computers (PCs), designed for individual use and include Desktops and Laptops.

1.4. Basic Hardware Components المكونات المادية الأساسية

1.4.1. Central Processing Unit (CPU)

The CPU is known as the "brain" of the computer and is responsible for executing most processing operations. It consists of two main parts:

• Control Unit (CU) وحدة التحكم: Fetches instructions from memory, decodes them, and executes them, thereby directing the flow of data within the computer.
• Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU) وحدة الحساب والمنطق: Performs all arithmetic operations (addition, subtraction) and logical operations (comparisons).

1.4.2. Storage Units

Feature	HDD (Hard Disk Drive)	SSD (Solid State Drive)
Technology	Mechanical, uses spinning disks and magnetic read/write heads.	Electronic, uses integrated circuits (flash memory) with no moving parts.
Speed	Slower in accessing and transferring data.	Much faster in reading, writing, and accessing data.
Durability	Less durable and more sensitive to shocks due to moving mechanical parts.	More durable and shock-resistant due to the absence of moving parts.
Cost & Capacity	Cheaper and available in higher storage capacities.	More expensive, especially in large storage capacities.

1.4.3. Main Memory: RAM vs. ROM

Random Access Memory (RAM)	Read Only Memory (ROM)
Volatile متقلبة: Loses its contents when power is cut off.	Non-Volatile غير متقلبة: Retains its data permanently even after power is cut off.
Temporary Use: Used to store data and programs that the computer is currently working on.	Permanent Use: Used to store Firmware such as the Basic Input/Output System (BIOS).
Writable: Data can be read from it and written to it repeatedly.	Not Writable (User): Pre-programmed at the factory and cannot be easily changed by the user.

1.4.4. Input and Output Devices

• Input Devices أجهزة الإدخال: Keyboard, Mouse, Microphone, Scanner, Webcam, Barcode Reader.
• Output Devices أجهزة الإخراج: Monitor, Printer, Speakers, Headphones, Projector, Plotter.

Software is the soul that breathes life into silent hardware components, transforming them into powerful and effective tools. ICT applications have become an integral part of our lives, from managing academic affairs via systems like OBS to completing government transactions via the E-Devlet platform, embodying how software facilitates various aspects of daily life.

2.1. ICT Applications in Daily Life تطبيقات ICT في الحياة اليومية

1. Education: Learning Management Systems (like Moodle) and Virtual Classrooms (like Zoom) allow remote and flexible learning, as well as access to digital libraries and interactive resources.
2. Work: Tools like MS Office and Slack support office productivity, while Telework allows employees to perform their tasks from anywhere, increasing work environment flexibility.
3. Health: Electronic Health Record systems like E-Nabız in Turkey are used to manage patient data, and telemedicine allows easy access to healthcare.
4. Government: E-Government portals like E-Devlet provide public services to citizens online, reducing bureaucracy and increasing transparency.
5. Banking: Online banking services and mobile apps allow customers to perform financial transactions, such as transfers and bill payments, around the clock.
6. E-Commerce: Platforms like Trendyol and Amazon provide virtual marketplaces enabling consumers to buy products and services easily from anywhere in the world.
7. Entertainment: Live streaming services like Netflix and Spotify and online gaming have revolutionized how we consume entertainment content.

2.2. Types of Software أنواع البرمجيات

Software is a set of instructions or programs that direct the computer to perform specific tasks.

• System Software برمجيات النظام: Basic programs that manage and control physical computer components. Examples: Operating Systems like Windows, macOS, Linux.
• Application Software البرمجيات التطبيقية: Programs designed to perform specific tasks for the end user. Examples: Word Processors (MS Word), Messaging Apps (WhatsApp), Student Portals (OBS).
• Utility Programs البرامج الخدمية: Programs that help maintain and improve computer performance and security. Examples: Antivirus software, Backup tools, Disk cleaning software.

2.3. Operating Systems (OS) أنظمة التشغيل

The Operating System is the most important program in the computer, acting as a mediator between the user and hardware components, and managing all other resources and programs. Main Functions of the OS:

• Booting الإقلاع: The process of starting the computer and loading the operating system into memory.
• User Interface واجهة المستخدم: Provides a way for the user to interact with the computer.
  • CLI (Command Line Interface): Relies on entering text commands.
  • GUI (Graphical User Interface): Relies on windows, icons, and menus.
• Resource & Memory Management: Allocates system resources like CPU time and manages Main Memory (RAM) and Virtual Memory to run programs efficiently.
• File Management: Organizes and controls the creation, storage, and retrieval of files and folders on storage units.
• Device Management (Device Drivers): Uses drivers to control input and output devices like printers and monitors.
• Security & Access Rights: Manages user accounts and controls access rights to files and resources to ensure security.
• Error Handling: Deals with errors that may occur in software or hardware and guides the user with instructional messages.

2.4. E-Commerce Models نماذج التجارة الإلكترونية

Model	Description	Example
B2B (Business-to-Business)	A company selling its products or services to another company.	Alibaba (Connects manufacturers with wholesalers)
B2C (Business-to-Consumer)	A company selling its products or services directly to individual consumers.	Trendyol, Amazon
C2C (Consumer-to-Consumer)	A consumer selling their products or services to another consumer via an intermediary platform.	eBay, GittiGidiyor (formerly)
B2G (Business-to-Government)	A company providing its services or products to the government via online tenders.	Software company selling systems to the government.
C2G (Consumer-to-Government)	An individual transacting with the government electronically.	Paying taxes or renewing a driver's license via the e-Devlet portal.
B2E (Business-to-Employee)	A company providing products or services to its employees at discounted rates via an internal portal.	Tech company selling its devices to its employees.

Networks are the backbone of our interconnected digital world; they enable devices and systems to communicate and share resources. Understanding network architecture and how it works is essential to comprehending how the Internet and digital services we rely on daily—from email to cloud computing—function.

3.1. Network Basics أساسيات الشبكات

A Computer Network is a system connecting two or more devices to share resources (like printers and files) and exchange data.

Circuit Switching تحويل الدوائر	Packet Switching تحويل الحزم
A dedicated, fixed communication path is established between the two parties for the duration of the session.	Data is split into small packets, and each packet is routed independently across the network.
Efficiency: Less efficient, as the path remains reserved even if no data is being sent.	Efficiency: More efficient, as multiple users can share the same path simultaneously.
Delay: Fixed and low delay once the connection is established.	Delay: Variable delay, as packets may face congestion and delay at different nodes.
Connection Req: A connection must be established before data transfer begins.	Does not require prior connection establishment (Connectionless).

3.2. Types of Networks أنواع الشبكات

• LAN (Local Area Network): Covers a small geographic area such as an office, building, or university campus.
• WAN (Wide Area Network): Covers a very large geographic area, such as a country or continent; the most famous example is the Internet.
• MAN (Metropolitan Area Network): Covers an area the size of a city, connecting multiple Local Area Networks (LANs).
• PAN (Personal Area Network): Covers a very small area around a single person, used to connect personal devices like phones and headphones via Bluetooth.
• HAN (Home Area Network): Connects digital devices within a home, such as computers, printers, and smart devices.

3.3. Network Topologies طبولوجيا الشبكات

• Bus الناقل: All devices are connected to a single central cable.
  • Strength: Easy to install and low cost.
  • Weakness: Any break in the central cable leads to the failure of the entire network.
• Star النجمة: All devices are connected to a central device (like a switch or hub).
  • Strength: Fault isolation is easy; failure of one device does not affect the rest.
  • Weakness: Failure of the central device leads to the failure of the entire network.
• Ring الحلقة: Devices are connected in a closed loop, and data travels in one direction.
  • Strength: Stable performance under heavy loads and no data collision.
  • Weakness: Failure of a single device or a break in the cable can disrupt the entire network.
• Mesh الشبكية: Every device is connected to many other devices.
  • Strength: Very high reliability and fault tolerance due to multiple paths.
  • Weakness: High cost and complexity in installation and management.

3.4. Basic Network Devices أجهزة الشبكات الأساسية

• Modem المودم: Converts digital signals from the computer into analog signals transmittable over phone lines (and vice versa) to connect the home network to the Internet.
• Router الموجه: Connects different networks (such as your local network and the Internet) and routes data packets between them to reach their correct destination.
• Switch المحول: Connects devices within the same Local Area Network (LAN) and intelligently routes data only to the intended device using MAC addresses.
• Hub الموزع: A simple device connecting devices in a local network, but it broadcasts received data to all connected devices, making it less efficient than a switch.

3.5. The Internet and the Web الإنترنت والويب

• Internet الإنترنت: The global infrastructure of interconnected networks that allows devices to communicate.
• World Wide Web (WWW) الشبكة العنكبوتية العالمية: A service running on top of the Internet, consisting of interconnected web pages and documents accessible via browsers.
• Domain Name System (DNS): Acts as the "phonebook" of the Internet, translating domain names easy for humans to remember (like www.google.com) into digital IP addresses (like 172.217.16.196) that computers use to communicate.

TCP/IP Model:

Layer	Main Function	Example
Application	Provides protocols for applications to communicate over the network.	HTTP, SMTP, FTP
Transport	Ensures reliable data transfer from end-to-end.	TCP, UDP
Internet	Responsible for addressing and routing data packets across networks.	IP (Internet Protocol)
Network Access	Manages how data is sent over the physical network media.	Ethernet, Wi-Fi

Effective file management is an indispensable essential skill in any digital environment. It contributes directly to increasing productivity, facilitating collaboration, and ensuring data security and protection from loss, whether on an individual or institutional level.

4.1. File & Path Basics أساسيات الملفات والمسارات

• File الملف: A collection of related information stored as a single unit with a specific name.
• Directory/Folder المجلد: An organizational container used to group and classify files and other folders in a hierarchical manner.

Key Concepts:

• Path المسار: The unique address defining the location of a file or folder in the directory structure (e.g., C:\Users\Documents\report.docx).
• Extension الامتداد: The last part of the file name after the dot, indicating the file type and the program that can open it (e.g., .pdf, .jpg).
• Attributes السمات: Metadata describing the file, such as name, type, size, creation date, and permissions (read, write, execute).

Extension	File Type
.docx	Microsoft Word Document
.pdf	PDF Document
.jpg / .png	Image File
.mp3	Audio File
.zip / .rar	Compressed File

4.2. Basic File Operations عمليات الملفات الأساسية

Create, Read, Write, Delete, Copy, Move.

Operation	Copy النسخ	Move النقل
Effect on Original	Original file remains in place unchanged.	Original file is deleted from its old location.
Need for Space	Requires extra storage space for the new copy.	Does not require extra space, as only file location changes.

4.3. Backup & Recovery النسخ الاحتياطي والاستعادة

Backup is the process of creating a copy of data and storing it in a separate location to protect it from loss due to causes like hardware failure, human error, or malware attacks.

Backup Types:

• Full الكامل: All selected data is copied every time.
• Incremental التزايدي: Only data changed since the last backup (full or incremental) is copied.
• Differential التفاضلي: All data changed since the last full backup is copied.

4.4. Cloud Storage & Compression التخزين السحابي وضغط الملفات

Cloud Storage: A model for storing data on remote servers accessible via the Internet. Benefits: 1. Access from anywhere. 2. Automatic synchronization across devices. Examples: Google Drive, Dropbox, OneDrive.

File Compression:

• Lossless غير الفاقد للبيانات: Reduces file size without losing any data, allowing full restoration of the original file. Example: ZIP, RAR.
• Lossy الفاقد للبيانات: Significantly reduces file size by removing some data considered unnecessary (like inaudible audio details or invisible image details). Example: JPEG, MP3.

The ICT field is characterized by rapid and continuous change, with new innovations reshaping how we work and live. Understanding current technology trends, along with their accompanying ethical, security, and societal issues, is crucial for any professional seeking to keep up with the digital age.

5.1. Global Trends in ICT الاتجاهات العالمية

• Artificial Intelligence (AI) & Machine Learning (ML): Enabling machines to perform tasks requiring human intelligence, like image recognition and decision making, and learning from data to improve performance.
• Cloud Computing: Providing computing resources (servers, storage, databases) on demand via the Internet, giving companies flexibility and lower costs.
• Internet of Things (IoT): A network of physical devices connected to the Internet that collect and exchange data, such as smart homes and connected cars.
• Big Data Analytics: Analyzing massive and complex datasets to extract insights and patterns that aid in decision making.
• 5G Networks: The new generation of mobile communication networks providing ultra-high speeds and very low latency, opening doors for new applications like autonomous cars and remote surgery.
• Cybersecurity: Protecting systems, networks, and data from digital attacks, a field growing in importance with increased reliance on technology.
• Green ICT & Sustainability: Focusing on reducing the environmental impact of technology through energy efficiency and reducing electronic waste.

5.2. Key Concepts مفاهيم أساسية

5.3. Issues & Challenges in ICT القضايا والتحديات

• Cybersecurity & Privacy: With increased reliance on digital systems, threats like hacking and ransomware increase. Laws like GDPR in Europe and KVKK in Turkey aim to protect individual data.
• Ethical Issues: Include concerns regarding responsible technology use, notably AI Bias, where systems may make unfair decisions based on biased data.
• Digital Divide: The gap between individuals who have access and effective use of IT and those who do not, due to factors like income, location, and education.
• Sustainability & E-Waste: The environmental challenge of disposing of old electronic devices containing toxic materials, and the need for "Green Computing" to reduce energy consumption.

Word processing software, led by Microsoft Word, are essential tools in the ICT environment, enabling users to efficiently create, format, and share professional documents, ranging from academic reports to official correspondence.

6.1. Microsoft Word Interface واجهة Microsoft Word

• Title Bar: Displays document name and program name.
• Ribbon: Contains most commands and tools grouped in tabs (like Home, Insert, Layout).
• Quick Access Toolbar: Provides quick access to commonly used commands like Save and Undo.
• Status Bar: Displays information about the document like page number, word count, and proofing language.

6.2. Basic Formatting & Editing التنسيق والتحرير الأساسي

Basic Keyboard Shortcuts: Ctrl+C (Copy), Ctrl+V (Paste), Ctrl+S (Save).

Importance of Styles: Using built-in styles like Heading 1 and Heading 2 is a necessary practice to create an organized document structure. This organization not only improves readability but also facilitates creating an Automatic Table of Contents, which is vital in long documents and official reports.

6.3. Integrating Objects & Data دمج الكائنات والبيانات

• Tables: Used to organize and present structured data in a clear, comparative way, like budget tables or inventory lists.
• Visual Objects: Visual elements like Pictures and SmartArt can be inserted to clarify complex ideas and display processes and data in an attractive visual way.
• Saving as PDF: When submitting documents on official platforms like the student information system OBS or e-Government portal e-Devlet, it is crucial to save the document as PDF. This format ensures the original formatting is preserved regardless of the device or OS used to view it and prevents accidental edits.

Microsoft Excel plays a vital role as a powerful tool for analyzing, managing, and visualizing numerical data. Mastering Excel skills is indispensable in the ICT field, where it is used for everything from budgeting and project tracking to analyzing big data sets.

7.1. Basic Concepts in Excel المفاهيم الأساسية

• Workbook مصنف: The complete Excel file (extension .xlsx) containing one or more worksheets.
• Worksheet ورقة عمل: A single page within the workbook, consisting of a grid of rows and columns.
• Cell خلية: The intersection point of a row and a column, the basic unit for data storage (e.g., A1).
• Range نطاق: A group of adjacent cells (e.g., A1:C10).

7.2. References & Formulas المراجع والصيغ

Cell references determine how Excel handles cell addresses when copying and pasting formulas.

Reference Type	Example	How it changes when copied
Relative المرجع النسبي	A1	Changes automatically based on the new location of the formula. (e.g., copying A1 from B2 to B3 changes it to A2).
Absolute المرجع المطلق	$A$1	Remains fixed and never changes when the formula is copied, thanks to the dollar sign ($) locking column and row.
Mixed المرجع المختلط	A$1 or $A1	Locks either the row (A$1) or the column ($A1) only, while the other part remains relative and changes upon copying.

7.3. Common Functions الدوال الشائعة

Function	Description
SUM	Adds values of cells in a specified range.
AVERAGE	Calculates the arithmetic mean of values in a specified range.
MIN	Finds the smallest value in a specified range.
MAX	Finds the largest value in a specified range.
IF	Performs a logical test and returns one value if true, and another if false.
COUNTIF	Counts cells in a range that meet a specific condition.
VLOOKUP	Searches for a value in the first column of a table and returns a corresponding value from another column in the same row.

7.4. Data Visualization & Pivot Tables تصوير البيانات والجداول المحورية

• Conditional Formatting: A tool allowing specific formats (like colors, bars, icons) to be applied to cells based on their values, facilitating visual distinction of patterns and important data.
• Pivot Tables: A powerful analysis tool used to summarize, analyze, and explore large amounts of data quickly and easily, allowing data rearrangement and grouping in different ways without changing source data.

Databases represent the beating heart of most modern ICT systems. They provide an organized and secure means to store, manage, and retrieve data that organizations rely on for daily operations and strategic decision making, ranging from banking systems to e-commerce applications.

8.1. Basic Concepts المفاهيم الأساسية

• Data البيانات: Raw facts that have no meaning on their own (e.g., "Ali", "30").
• Information المعلومات: Data processed and put into context to become meaningful (e.g., "Student Name: Ali", "Temperature: 30°C").
• Database قاعدة البيانات: An organized collection of electronically stored data.
• DBMS (Database Management System): Software enabling users to create, access, and manage databases.

8.2. Relational Model النموذج العلائقي

• Primary Key المفتاح الأساسي: A field (or set of fields) in a table that uniquely identifies each record (row) and cannot be null or duplicate (e.g., "Student ID").
• Foreign Key المفتاح الأجنبي: A field in a table pointing to the Primary Key in another table, used to create a relationship and link tables together.

8.3. SQL (Structured Query Language) لغة الاستعلام الهيكلية

SQL is the standard language used to interact with relational databases, used to create tables, insert, update, delete, and retrieve data.

Category	Function	Examples
DDL (Data Definition Language)	Used to define and modify database structure.	CREATE, ALTER, DROP
DML (Data Manipulation Language)	Used to manage data within tables.	SELECT, INSERT, UPDATE, DELETE

8.4. Transactions & ACID Properties المعاملات وخصائص ACID

Transaction: A logical unit of work consisting of one or more database operations. Treated as a single unit: either all operations succeed, or all fail. ACID properties ensure transaction reliability:

• Atomicity الذرية: Ensures the transaction executes fully or not at all ("All or Nothing").
• Consistency الاتساق: Ensures the transaction moves the database from one valid state to another.
• Isolation العزل: Ensures concurrent transactions do not interfere with each other.
• Durability الدوام: Ensures results of a successful transaction are permanent and recorded even in system failure.

8.5. NoSQL Databases & Big Data قواعد بيانات NoSQL والبيانات الضخمة

• NoSQL Databases: Non-relational databases designed to handle unstructured or semi-structured data in large volumes. Used when flexibility and horizontal scalability are priorities (e.g., web apps, social media).
• Big Data: Defined by 3 dimensions (Volume, Velocity, Variety), making it difficult to process using traditional databases.

E-commerce is a direct and powerful application of ICT concepts, integrating databases to manage products and customers, networks to connect buyers and sellers, and software to provide user-friendly interfaces, creating global markets transcending geographical borders.

9.1. Definition & Models تعريف ونماذج

• E-Commerce: Refers to buying and selling goods and services online.
• E-Business: Broader term including e-commerce plus all business operations done electronically within the company (like supply chain management, internal communication).

Main E-Commerce Models:

• B2C (Business-to-Consumer): Company sells to end consumer. Example: Amazon, Netflix.
• B2B (Business-to-Business): Company sells to another company. Example: Alibaba.
• C2C (Consumer-to-Consumer): Consumer sells to consumer via intermediary platform. Example: eBay.
• C2B (Consumer-to-Business): Individual offers services/products to companies. Example: Freelancer on Upwork.
• B2G (Business-to-Government): Company offers services/products to government.
• C2G (Consumer-to-Government): Individual transacts with government electronically (paying taxes).
• B2E (Business-to-Employee): Company offers special services/offers to employees.

9.2. Components & Technologies المكونات والتقنيات

The e-commerce ecosystem consists of: Website/Online Store, Payment Gateways (secure transaction processing), Logistics & Supply Chain (inventory, shipping, returns), Security (SSL encryption), and Digital Marketing (SEO, Social Media). AI helps customize shopping experiences, while Cloud Computing provides flexible infrastructure.

9.3. Pros & Cons المزايا والتحديات

Pros	Cons/Challenges
Global Reach: Selling to customers anywhere.	Security Threats: Fraud and data breaches.
24/7 Availability: Open all the time.	Trust Issues: Building customer trust online.
Lower Costs: Compared to physical stores.	Intense Competition: Easy entry for new competitors.
Personalization: Analyzing customer data for offers.	Logistics Complexity: Managing shipping/returns.

Business Intelligence (BI) and Business Analytics (BA) are fields specialized in turning raw, useless data into actionable insights. By analyzing data, organizations can understand past performance and predict future trends, enabling informed strategic decisions supporting growth and innovation.

10.1. BI vs. BA Comparison مقارنة

Feature	Business Intelligence (BI)	Business Analytics (BA)
Focus	What happened? Focuses on describing and analyzing past and current performance.	What will happen? Why? Focuses on predicting future outcomes and discovering patterns.
Time Orientation	Past and Present.	Future.

10.2. BI System Architecture بنية نظام ذكاء الأعمال

1. Data Sources: Internal systems (ERP, CRM) and external data (market data, social media).
2. ETL (Extract, Transform, Load): Data is extracted, transformed (cleaned/standardized), and loaded into a central repository.
3. Data Warehouse: Central, optimized database for storing large amounts of historical data to support analysis.
4. BI Tools (Users): Interfaces used by managers/analysts to visualize data and create reports/dashboards.

10.3. Types of Analytics أنواع التحليلات

• Descriptive الوصفية: What happened? Summarizes historical data to picture current state (e.g., monthly sales report).
• Diagnostic التشخيصية: Why did it happen? digs into data to understand causes (e.g., why sales dropped in a region).
• Predictive التنبؤية: What will happen? Uses statistical models/ML to predict future trends (e.g., sales forecast).
• Prescriptive التوجيهية: What should we do? Suggests optimal actions to achieve a goal based on predictions (e.g., recommending best pricing strategy).

10.4. Knowledge Management (KM) إدارة المعرفة

Process of discovering, documenting, sharing, and applying knowledge within an organization.

• Tacit Knowledge المعرفة الضمنية: Personal knowledge hard to document, relying on experience/intuition (e.g., sales negotiation skill).
• Explicit Knowledge المعرفة الصريحة: Knowledge that can be documented, codified, and shared easily (e.g., company policy manual).

Project Management is the systematic methodology ensuring specific goals are met within time and budget constraints. In ICT, this skill is vital to ensure any initiative—whether developing software or building a network—is executed successfully and effectively.

11.1. Basics of Project Management أساسيات إدارة المشاريع

• Project المشروع: A temporary endeavor with specific start and end, aiming to create a unique product, service, or result.
• Project Management إدارة المشاريع: Application of knowledge, skills, tools, and techniques to project activities to meet requirements.

Project Management Triangle (Triple Constraint): To manage any project successfully, three main constraints must be balanced, with Quality as a central element affected by all:

• Scope النطاق: Work to be done.
• Time الوقت: Schedule available.
• Cost التكلفة: Budget allocated.

Note: Changing one constraint inevitably affects at least one other (e.g., reducing time may increase cost or reduce scope).

11.2. Project Lifecycle دورة حياة المشروع

1. Initiation البدء: Defining project idea/goals and getting formal approval.
2. Planning التخطيط: Creating a detailed plan defining scope, tasks, schedule, budget, resources, risks.
3. Execution التنفيذ: Implementing the plan; team performs tasks to produce deliverables.
4. Monitoring & Controlling المراقبة والتحكم: Tracking progress vs plan, taking corrective actions if deviations occur.
5. Closing الإغلاق: Formally ending activities, delivering final output, documenting lessons learned.

11.3. Methodologies: Waterfall vs. Agile المنهجيات

Feature	Waterfall الشلال	Agile الرشيقة
Process Nature	Linear: Phases flow sequentially; one doesn't start until previous ends.	Iterative: Work in short cycles (Sprints), delivering working parts at end of each.
Requirements	Fixed: Must be clear/fully defined at start.	Variable: Welcomes changes even late in project.
Suitability	Projects where requirements are well known/stable (Construction).	Projects where requirements are unclear or expected to change (Software).

11.4. Scrum Framework إطار عمل Scrum

Scrum is a popular Agile framework focusing on working in short cycles called "Sprints" (usually 2-4 weeks). Main Roles:

• Product Owner: Represents stakeholders, prioritizes work/requirements.
• Scrum Master: Facilitates team, removes obstacles, ensures Scrum principles are applied.
• Development Team: Cross-functional, self-organized team responsible for executing work.

11.5. Risk Management إدارة المخاطر

Project Risk: Any uncertain event/condition that can positively or negatively affect project goals if it occurs. Basic Steps:

1. Identify Risks: Recognize potential risks facing the project.
2. Plan Responses: Develop strategies to deal with risks (e.g., avoid, mitigate, accept).